Techniques and compositions for drug delivery of pharmaceuticals, including oral delivery, are well known. For example antihistamines, decongestants and antacids are all commonly delivered in solid tablet form. Analgesics have been delivered orally in tablet form for many years, for example salicylic acid, morphine, Demerol™ (meperidine), codeine and Percocet™ (oxycodone). Controlled release and sustained release pharmaceutical compositions have also been available for many years; for example the Contac 400 Time Capsule™ (Phenylpropanolamine Hydrochloride and Chlorpheniramine Maleate), antipsychotics, melatonin formulations provide release of an active agent over several hours. Analgesics are of particular interest for controlled release formulations, and common controlled release formulations for analgesics include the OxyContin® (oxycodone), MS Contin™ (morphine), CS Contin™ (codeine).
Formulation of drugs for delivery, particularly oral delivery, poses certain challenges. One challenge is to produce an oral controlled-release dosage form that provides for a relatively steady dose of drug over the approximately eight hours during which the dosage form passes through the gastrointestinal tract. Sustained release is often achieved by providing the tablet with a coating that delays release, or by formulating the tablet in such a way that it disintegrates relatively slowly, releasing drug as it does so. A tablet, however, once ingested, is subject to considerable mechanical and chemical stresses as it passes through the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, large intestine and colon, thus providing a significant challenge in maintaining controlled release of the drug formulation. Acids, enzymes and peristalsis can cause the tablet to break apart, resulting in exposure of the inside of the tablet and an increase in surface area of the tablet material. This will tend to increase the delivery rate of the drug or otherwise adversely affect the controlled release properties of the dosage form.
Another challenge, is to produce a dosage form, including an oral dosage form, that reduces the potential for drug abuse. In particular, opioids, CNS-depressants, and stimulants are commonly abused. According to a 1999 study by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), an estimated 4 million people, about 2 percent of the population age 12 and older, were (at the time of the study) using prescription drugs “non-medically.” Of these, 2.6 million misused pain relievers, 1.3 million misused sedatives and tranquilizers, and 0.9 million misused stimulants.
While many prescription drugs can be abused, the most common classes of abused drugs are: (1) Opioids—often prescribed to treat pain, (2) CNS Depressants—used to treat anxiety and sleep disorders, and (3) Stimulants—prescribed to treat narcolepsy and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Opioids are a class of potent narcotics that includes, for example, morphine, codeine, oxycodone and fentanyl and related drugs. Morphine is often used to alleviate severe pain. Codeine is used for milder pain. Other examples of opioids that can be prescribed to alleviate pain include oxycodone (e.g. OxyContin®—an oral, controlled release form of the drug); propoxyphene (e.g. Darvon™); hydrocodone (e.g. Vicodin™); hydromorphone (e.g. Dilaudid™); and meperidine (e.g. Demerol™).
In addition to relieving pain, opioids can also produce a sensation of euphoria, and when taken in large doses, can cause severe respiratory depression which can be fatal.
CNS depressants slow down normal brain function by increasing GABA activity, thereby producing a drowsy or calming effect. In higher doses, some CNS depressants can become general anesthetics, and in very high doses may cause respiratory failure and death. CNS depressants are frequently abused, and often the abuse of CNS depressants occurs in conjunction with the abuse of another substance or drug, such as alcohol or cocaine. Many deaths occur yearly through such drug abuse. CNS depressants can be divided into two groups, based on their chemistry and pharmacology: (1) Barbiturates, such as mephobarbital (e.g. Mebaral™) and pentobarbital sodium (e.g. Nembutal™), which are used to treat anxiety, tension, and sleep disorders. (2) Benzodiazepines, such as diazepam (e.g. Valium™) chlordiazepoxide HCl (e.g. Librium™), and alprazolam (e.g. Xanax™), which can be prescribed to treat anxiety, acute stress reactions, and panic attacks. Benzodiazepines that have a more sedating effect, such as triazolam (e.g. Halcion™) and estazolam (e.g. ProSom™) can be prescribed for short-term treatment of sleep disorders.
Stimulants are a class of drugs that enhance brain activity—they cause an increase in alertness, attention, and energy that is accompanied by increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration. Stimulants are frequently prescribed for treating narcolepsy, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and depression. Stimulants may also be used for short-term treatment of obesity, and for patients with asthma. Stimulants such as dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine™) and methylphenidate (Ritalin™) have chemical structures that are similar to key brain neurotransmitters called monoamines, which include norepinephrine and dopamine. Stimulants increase the levels of these chemicals in the brain and body. This, in turn, increases blood pressure and heart rate, constricts blood vessels, increases blood glucose, and opens up the pathways of the respiratory system. In addition, the increase in dopamine is associated with a sense of euphoria that can accompany the use of these drugs.
Taking high doses of a stimulant can result in an irregular heartbeat, dangerously high body temperatures, and/or the potential for cardiovascular failure or lethal seizures. Taking high doses of some stimulants repeatedly over a short period of time can lead to hostility or feelings of paranoia in some individuals.
A common and particularly dangerous cocktail of drugs is produced when stimulants are mixed with antidepressants or over-the-counter cold medicines containing decongestants. Anti-depressants may enhance the effects of a stimulant, and stimulants in combination with decongestants may cause blood pressure to become dangerously high or lead to irregular heart rhythms, which in extreme cases may be fatal.
Solid dosage forms are particularly susceptible to abuse. For example, tablets for oral drug delivery can be ground down into a powder. Drug addicts and abusers grind down the tablet in order to nasally inhale the drug. Addicts also grind the tablet to extract the drug into alcohol or water to make a concentrated injectable drug solution. Administration of various abused drugs in this way produces a sudden high dose of drug into the blood stream making the user euphoric. These well-known techniques for drug abuse have been used for many years with all manner of drugs.
One particularly important example of a highly addictive drug that is commonly abused by crushing (for nasal inhalation), and/or alcohol or water extraction (for intravenous injection) is Oxycodone. Oxycodone is a powerful analgesic that is available in an extended release tablet form (OxyContin®, Purdue Pharmaceuticals) and is manufactured in 10 mg, 20 mg, 40 mg, and 80 mg tablet strengths (the 160 mg tablet strength has been withdrawn from the US market due to prevalence of abuse of this particular product strength and the associated hazard from abuse of such a high dose of oxycodone. The OxyContin® tablets are formulated as time-release tablets (about 12 hours of release), but of course crushing and grinding the tablet destroys its controlled-release properties. In 2004, oxycodone abuse resulted in 36,600 visits to US emergency rooms, 20,000 of which are known to stem from abuse of sustained-release oxycodone formulations (e.g., OxyContin® tablets). Intentional abuse of oxycodone has reached epidemic proportions in the US, where, according to a 2004 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 3.1 million Americans have used sustained-release oxycodone for non-medical purposes. Furthermore, unintentional overdose deaths from opioid analgesics have increased over 18% per year from 1990 to 2002, at which time opioid analgesic poisoning was listed in 5528 death certificates, more than either heroin or cocaine. Chewing/snorting a crushed 40 mg OxyContin® is like taking eight Percocet™ at once or an 80 mg OxyContin® is like taking 16 Percocet™ all at once. Overdose produces small pupils, slow breathing, dizziness, weakness, seizures, loss of consciousness, coma, and sometimes death.